INTRODUCTION
This article is the continuation of the Chapter One on how to solve speech impairment in school children. This deals with literature review on how to solve speech impairment, revealing the causes and effects of the disorder.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter deals with review of related literature to solving It captures opinions and views of authors and writers in newspapers, journals and books related to the study.
This chapter also covers the conceptual review and empirical review of the study. It is organised under the following subheadings:
1. The concept of speech impairment.
2. Causes of speech impairment.
3. Effects and implications of speech impairment.
4. Strategies that can be used to assist pupils with speech impairment in the classroom.
THE CONCEPT OF SPEECH IMPAIRMENT
According to Williams (2021) speech impairment is a condition in which the ability to produce speech sounds that are necessary to communicate with others is impaired.
Speech impairments can be mild, such as occasionally mispronouncing a couple of words, to severe, such as not being able to produce speech sounds at all. We rely on speech as one of the primary methods of communicating with others.
Impairment in speech can significantly impact our ability to communicate. Speech impairments in childhood can have a negative influence on social development. Speech impairments at all stages of life can lead to social isolation, embarrassment and shame.
Speech-language disorders are the most common of childhood disabilities that affect about 5% to 8% of pre-school children (Disability info: speech and language disorders Factsheet (FS11), 2008).
A speech and language disorder refers to an impairment of speech or sound production, fluency, voice or language which significantly affects children’s educational performance or their social, emotional or vocational development. Children may stutter or experience problems with articulating words.
Anyagre and Dondieu (2006) indicated that, speech impairment has psychological and social problems on youngsters that pose tremendous effects on pupils academic performance and social interaction.
Moreover, speech that is difficult to understand due to the poor articulation of speech sounds. On a standardized test of speech production which provides a severity rating, the score falls outside the normal range.
Speech impairment may exist in isolation or may co-exist with other aspects of a communication difficulty such as language impairment. Speech impairment may encompass difficulties at an articulatory, phonetic, or phonological level.
These levels may be impaired in isolation or levels of difficulty may co-exist by Leitao (1998). Based on these definitions, the researcher views speech impairment as a learning disability that occurs in the manner individuals articulates speech sounds.
Pupils suffering from speech impairment have their speech characterised by distortions, subtractions and omissions of sounds.
The researcher therefore aims at using appropriate instructional methods to assist pupils with speech impairment to improve upon their academic performance and social interaction.
CAUSES OF SPEECH IMPAIRMENT
The causes of speech impairment are provided below;
The inability to articulate speech sounds correctly could be caused by biological factors, such as brain damage, damage to the nerves controlling the muscles used in speech or gross abnormalities of the oral structures like a cleft palate (Hardman, Drew & Egan, 2002).
Other possible conditions that might contribute to speech and language disorders are environmental factors such as the quality of parent-child communication, emotional disturbances, and hearing loss.
Speech and language disorders are characterized by fluency disorder, articulation disorder, and voice disorder.
Smythe (2005) identifies the remote cause of speech disorder to brain injuries. Brain injuries either before, during or after birth may lead to the child’s inability to speak.
He noted that, brain injuries affect and slow down the child’s ability to process information leading to a high frequency of word error in the child’s speech.
Most speech and language disorders exhibited by school children are developmental, that is, roots of the problem exist from birth and manifestations of the problem emerge as the child develops and it became obvious that is slower or atypical compared to peers.
In a minority of cases, speech and language disorders are acquired when a child suffers from an illness or accident that affects brain function. This type of speech disorder is known as aphasia (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), 2000).
Moreover, lack of environmental stimulation and warmth upbringing can cause speech impairment in children. Best (1992) indicated that, the child’s environment is made up of the home and school.
He asserted that, if the home environment is associated with maltreatment, poverty, child abuse, domestic accident and emotional stress, children upon exposure to these conditions may experience speech impairment.
An emotional stressful home with a lot of bullying produces children with fear and anxiety making them timid when speaking. The repercussion of these negative conditions on speech production in children is stammering and stuttering.
In another breath, the school environment when unconducive can cause speech impairment in pupils. Levitt (2004) advances that, poor teaching and learning methods, poor teaching and learning materials and harsh treatment can affect the child’s speech production. Unhealthy environmental practices at school such as corporal punishment, lack of qualified teachers, and premature entry into school can also lead to speech impairment in children.
Speech impairment can also occur as a result of physical damages resulting from accidents or diseases. Kaplan (1999) stressed that, children with Cleft palates or lips may suffer during speech production. Disease conditions such as developmental delays, niemann-pick disease and Down’s syndrome can lead to speech impairment.
Imitation is a remote cause of speech impairment among pupils. Orlich (2000) believes in the assumption that speech is acquired through imitation and reinforcement. Speech impairment can be acquired when pupils imitate their peers suffering from speech impairment. Social interaction is a critical vehicle for speech development.
Lastly, immature development of speech organs can lead to problems in their articulation of speech resulting into drawling and unclear speech.
Indeed, the cause of speech impairment abounds; moving from biological factors to those that occur as a result of environmental factors.
Effects and Implication of Speech
1. Impairment on the Child’s Learning at School.
Speech impairment is viewed as a learning problem in children at basic schools. Melnick (2007) notes that children (learners) who are suffering from speech impairment are most likely to have poor communication, listening, writing and reading skills.
Speech impairment therefore has negative and devastating effects on learners academic and social interaction at school. It is important to note that, children suffering from speech disorder often feel and experience fear and guilt, this leads to poor attention in class.
Florian (2007) suggest that, when pupils are entangled with speech impairment, they develop the habit of inferiority complex in class and fail to pay attention to teaching and learning but rather think of the derogatory remarks friends rain on them.
Moreover, Ives (2007) said that, speech impairment in the classroom leads to low self-esteem in pupils. Learners with low self-concepts grapple with their academic performance and are most likely not to succeed in their academics. Speech impairment is therefore a canker and a bottleneck to the academic performance of basic one pupils of Tumu Egala Basic School.
2. Participation of pupils with speech impairment during lesson presentation.
Again, there is poor participation of pupils with speech impairment during lesson presentation. Aphasic learners find it difficult to speak and so explanation of concepts or responding to questions usually pose a problem to them. Such children are most likely to remain silent and quiet in class.
Some can even become truants since their friends will tease at them when they make mistakes. Morales (2009) argued that speech could seriously limit the manner in which an individual interacted with others in school, social, and even home environments. Inability to correctly form speech sounds might create stress, embarrassment, and frustration in both the speaker and the listener.
Over-time, this could create aggressive response on the part of the listener for being misunderstood or out of embarrassment. Alternatively, it could generate an avoidance of social situations that created these stressful situations.
Sylvester (2007) noted the educational implications of speech impairment. He said, as the number of pupils with speech impairment increase, so will there be the need for high level staffing to provide support for speech training.
Speech disorder may require some environmental adaptations and specialised equipment and the employment of specialist such as speech therapist and psychologist.
Blood, Blood, Tellis and Gabel (2003) equally indicated that the stigmatization associated with speech disorders influenced self-esteem, as children with speech disorders often experienced depression, social isolation, and poorer performance on academics and standardized tests. Social acceptance, confidence, and overall life satisfaction could be at stake.
Without the ability to hold fluent and successful conversations, many huge milestones such as maintaining friendships could be unsuccessful.
Furthermore, Blood, Boyle, Blood and Nalesnik (2010) also stated that children with speech disorders could easily be bullied and was more common in childhood.
Bullying involves the consistent and intentional harassment of individual, and may be physical or verbal in nature. This trend has a great effect on the socialization of children with speech and language disorders.
Stillman (2001) said that, speech impairment has implications on the occupational choice pupils make. He hypothesizes that, the desire for achievement is directly related with the need to avoid failure.
The tendency to achieve success is influenced by the possibility of success and the attractiveness of achieving it. A strong feeling of avoiding failure can restrict pupils from setting goals beyond what they can accomplish. Pupils with speech impairment ignore activities that involve the use of speech.
From the African context, individuals suffering from speech impairment are associated with punishments from gods. Hence, pupils with speech impairment are neglected and avoided by the African society.
According to Smith and Tyler, (2009) the early stages of an individual’s life span dictate the vulnerability and dependent on others to guide him or her. This responsibility comes to the parents to teach their children with speech and language disorders, the right from wrong according to their socially acceptable attitudes.
A child also learns things from other members of the household such as siblings or other relatives. However, the predominant influence is that of the parents. Parents play a big role because they are primarily in control of the individual during childhood and adolescent years.
The involvement of parents can be a good ground for model behaviour. However, it could also have a negative impact on the child. Situations such as violent environment could greatly impact how children think, act and emotionally feel.
In addition, Blood, Blood, Tramontana, Sylvia, Boyle and Motzko (2011) stipulated that the social implications of speech and language disorders were so powerful that they had the potential to influence self-esteem, depression levels and academic success.
Rose (2005) noted that children with speech and language disorders have a harder time in the classroom than children without speech and language disorders. Reading, comprehension, spelling, writing, and mathematics prove to be a problem to them. It is against this background that the study investigated the impact of speech disorders on pupils’ learning and socialization at the school of Tumu Egala premises.
Appropriate Instructional methods that can be used on pupils with impaired speech
Instructional strategies that can be Used on Pupils with Impaired Speech
Orlich (2000) defines learner centred methods as those methods that place the learner at the centre of the learning process. For an educationist to successfully handle learners with speech impairment, the following learner centred techniques of teaching reading have been suggested by authorities.
Kirk, Gallagher and Anastasiow (2000) identified learner initiated model as a successful method for teaching speech impaired pupils. With learner-initiated learning, the learner determines how to reach a desired goal with little or no support from the teacher.
This learning model encourages independent study. Since speech impaired pupils feel guilt and fear when in the classroom, the use of learner-initiated teaching model will give the learners who feel fear and guilt to learn on their own with the teacher acting as a prompter and a facilitator of learning.
Smith, Venneman and Whiter (2000) noted that, co-operative learning technique can be used to teach aphasic pupils effectively and efficiently. With this method, students are held accountable for both individual and group achievement.
Co-operative learning is characterised by interaction among members of the group during problem solving. As pupils interact with each other, the fear and guilt that speech impaired pupils have will reduce.
Again, in co-operative learning, each group member contributes to the learning thereby increasing learner participation and concepts accusation. Co-operation learning therefore offers opportunity for students to learn through speaking and listening.
Smith et al (2000) stated that, co-operative learning improves both the academic performance and social skills of speech impaired pupils.
Shayer and Adey (2001) added that, co-operative learning enhances students’ enthusiasm for learning and determination to achieve academic success.
Moreover, co-operative learning from Schwarzandlluth (2007) point of view can improve the emotional well-being and boost the self-esteem, skills and attitude of speech impaired learners.
Co-operative learning also allows the teacher to provide individualized assistance to pupils who may lack skills such as speaking and reading skills.
Co-operative learning is good for learners suffering from speech disorder since it will improve their understanding of basic academic content, reinforce social skills, allow pupils decision making, creates active learning environment, boost students self-esteem, promotes pupils responsibility and focuses on success for everyone.
Discussion is another technique that can be used for teaching learners with speech disorder. Smythe (2005) believes that if language and speech is presented sufficiently and consistently to pupils with speech deficit, they will want to speak. Based on this notion, involving pupils in discussion will make them want to speak.
Stillman (2001) said that, discussion promote meaningful personal interaction and promote variety of learning which include content, skills, attitudes and processes. It is an appropriate way of improving thinking and speaking skills in speech impaired learners.
Miles (2003) added that, pupils need to be put into small group discussions. He described small group discussion as a technique that involves verbal exchange of ideas and information in groups of four to eight pupils.
He further added that, pupils need practice and cumulative experience within carefully planned work to gain skills necessary for successful speech. A teacher who wishes to develop pupils speech must give pupils guidance, feedback and repeated opportunity to practice their speech.
Small group discussion is good for introducing new concepts to pupils suffering from speech disorder since it allows everyone to participate in the lesson, promote individual equity and seeks alternative solutions to problems and respecting the viewpoints of other pupils.
Lastly, brainstorming can be used in teaching reading pupils with speech deficit. Brainstorming is a simple and effective way to develop a high level of creativity on the part of pupils with speech impairment. With this technique, ideas from pupils are accepted, acknowledged and recorded.
There is no criticisms to any suggestion made and ideas are solicited from the silent member (pupils suffering from speech impairment).
Strategies that can be Used to Assist Pupils with Speech Impairment in the Classroom
In the researcher’s research, she looked for articles that described teaching strategies that teachers use in their classrooms that are responsive to students with special needs who are integrated into mainstream classes, in particular for students with developmental speech delays.
Nilholm and Alm (2010) discovered different teaching strategies in their field work that teachers used in their classrooms in order to accommodate their students with special needs.
First and foremost, they made general classroom rules that were geared towards creating an inclusive environment. For example, one rule stated that all students had the right to speak and to voice their own opinions.
Another rule stated that all students must be respectful of one another and that everyone must try to accept the other students’ differences as something positive.
As well, the students in the classroom were given differentiated instruction, and extra help and support depending on their individual needs.
A case study by Low and Lee (2011) also suggests strategies in helping students with speech and communication deficits to improve their speech skills. They recommend using strategies such as “turn-taking”, “object-picture matching”, and “imitating vocalization”, just to name a few, in order to promote the speech of these students.
These strategies help students hear the correct way of saying certain sounds, which is an effective strategy for helping to improve students’ speech skills. Floria (2009) said acceptance of pupils with speech impairment is vitally important.
Teachers must eschew the attitude of embarrassing pupils when they make mistakes in the pronunciation of words. The use of derogatory remarks on pupils will lead to low self-esteem hence, teachers must endeavour to display acceptance towards pupils with speech impairment.
Again, instructors and anybody within the reach of learners with speech impairment must be patient towards them when they have trouble with speaking.
Speech problems according to Tauber (2007) resulting from central nervous dysfunction can lead to slurred and slow speech. Pupils also suffering from sickness may also find it difficult to articulate. Damage in the brain’s language and speech area which governs the production and understanding of language can lead to speech problems hence, the teacher must be patient towards pupils with speech disorder who find it difficult to produce speech.
Tauber (2007) came out with another strategy that can be employed to help pupils with speech impairment and that is, teachers must avoid finishing pupils sentences. When pupils with speech impairment make an attempt to speak, they must be listened to.
Good listening skills is very necessary when handling pupils with speech impairment. Finishing pupils sentences can kill their initiative in speech production.
Gelston (2004) also mentions that it is very important that teachers teach their students the importance of inclusion right from kindergarten so that students with developmental speech delays are made to feel comfortable and accepted in their classes.
He says that it is very important for teachers to be accepting of these students and to promote positive attitudes towards these students. He also says that teaching inclusion early in life can help stop negative attitudes from forming towards people with speech impairments later in life.
In addition, creating an inclusive environment is very important in helping to make students with differences feel safe and respected in the classroom. As well, giving all students a voice in the class and giving them opportunities to speak, especially students with developmental speech delays, will encourage the students to participate in the class and will help to raise their self-esteem.
This will also give students with developmental speech delays an opportunity to practice their speech and to improve on certain sounds, which is very important for their speech development.
As well, providing the necessary support for these students while including them in a mainstream classroom can help these students develop in their speech skills and improve their performance while feeling included in their mainstream classes.
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW
The review focused on the use of appropriate instructional methods to assist pupils with speech impairment to improve upon their academic performance and social interaction.
The review has revealed that, speech impairment can be as a result of brain injury, malnutrition, poor environmental conditions at home and school. The review has also shown that, an insignificant number of pupils genetically acquire speech impairment.
In addition, the researcher has also come across useful instructional methods for pupils with speech impairment. These methods include; brainstorming, discussion, co-operative learning and learner centered method.
The review as summed up with suggested strategies that can be used to assist pupils with speech impairment to learn in the classroom.
SOURCE: bbcpulse.com